Research on the mode, level and structure of urban consumption in the Tang Dynasty

Zhang Jianguang and Zhang Jie

History of the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties 2006.4

(Note: This paper is a basis for urbanization in the novel, and it is also the theoretical basis for the establishment and expansion of cities such as Xiangyang, Jinling, Luoyang, Chang'an, Jinan and other cities in the novel.)

Abstract: The urban commercial economy developed rapidly in the Tang Dynasty, and the daily consumption of urban residents was closely linked to the market. Although the degree of connection between the various classes in the city was not very consistent with the market, it gradually became a common development trend. The consumption levels in cities were high and low, including high consumption by officials, nobles and wealthy businessmen, as well as consumption by ordinary industry and businessmen with abundant food and clothing, and also low consumption by ordinary citizens. Therefore, it is reflected in the consumption structure. The consumption structure of different consumption levels is completely different, and the consumption structure of different social classes also has its own characteristics.

Keywords: Tang Dynasty/urban consumption/consumption behavior/consumption level/consumption structure

To measure the development level of commodity economy in a period, urban economy is the most important factor. From a large perspective, commodity economy is the most important level of production and consumption. Therefore, the exploration of urban consumption economy is an important link in the study of commodity economy in the Tang Dynasty. In recent years, with the deepening of academic research on commodity economy in the academic community, people's understanding of the economy in the Tang Dynasty has become more objective and many important conclusions have been drawn. However, we also see that the research on urban consumption economy in the Tang Dynasty is still very weak, with few breakthrough views and few results. In view of this, this article attempts to explore the development level of commodity economy in some large cities in the Tang Dynasty from the way of urban consumption, level and structure. Due to our limited knowledge, if there is any inappropriate discussion in the article, please give us a correction.

1. Urban consumption methods in the Tang Dynasty

The consumption method is the method and form of people's consumption of living materials, spiritual products and labor, which are generally expressed through the types, quantity, quality, structure and consumption expenditure methods of consumer goods. In the Tang Dynasty, citizens from the basic consumption of clothing, food, housing, transportation in daily life, to the spiritual and cultural consumption of cultural entertainment, and labor consumption of labor, etc., all aspects were closely related to the commodity market. It is no exaggeration to say that urban consumption in the Tang Dynasty was basically commodity consumption completed by the market.

1.

Development of consumer goods market in cities

Since the founding of the country in the Tang Dynasty, it inherited some practices of the previous dynasties and implemented the market system in urban construction, that is, strictly distinguishing the "cities" of commercial trade from the "cities" of residential areas, and strictly managing and controlling them. From the capital to the prefectures and counties, there are "cities" in various cities, and there are many shops in the "cities" of major cities and prosperous trade. In the north, the capital of Chang'an East City, the two houses in the north and south, "the goods and wealth in the street market are 220.

Walking, a mansion is set up on all sides, and all the treasures are gathered in all directions"[1](Volume 3). Nanshi Luoyang City, "has lived in the two fangs in the east, west, south and north. There are more than 3,000 stores in the area, and there are more than 400 stores on all sides, and the goods are accumulated in the mountains"[1](Volume 5). Yangzhou in the south "when it is a big clash between north and south, department stores are gathered... and set up residences"[2](Volume 86 "City"). Guangzhou "people and barbarians are mixed, and the land is poor, and they are mostly profitable for the city"[3]

(Volume 170 "Biography of Wang E"). Since the middle of the Tang Dynasty, the prosperity of commerce and the expansion of the market have increasingly broken through the restrictions of the market system. On the one hand, various shops have gradually spread out in various shops outside the "city", and trade exchanges are no longer limited to the "city". Moreover, many small vendors carry loads and walk around the streets and alleys, directly into residential areas for commercial trade. On the other hand, the strict night ban system under the "city" system has gradually relaxed, and night markets in major cities have quietly emerged. For example, Chongrenfang in Chang'an "one street scatters, and two cities are roaring day and night, and the lights are endless" [1] (Volume 3); Bianzhou "Shuimen to late tea merchants, and Qiao City has been traveling all night long" [4] (Volume 300 Wang Jian's "Send to the Xianggong of Linghu, Bianzhou). The continuous expansion of market size in cities in the Tang Dynasty became the most important hardware for citizens to rely on the market for commodity consumption.

In the process of commercial trade development, many commodities have gradually formed a special market with cities as transit or final sales locations, providing convenience for citizens to consume commodity. For example, Chengdu Silk City, Weizhuang has a lyrics saying: "Jinli, Silk City, and pearls and jades all over the streets" [4] (Volume 892 Weizhuang "Resentful Princess"). Yangzhou Medicine City, "Yangzhou is noisy and selling medicine market, and there is no way to know the fairy" [4] (Volume 821 Jiaoran "Buy Medicine Songs to Send to Yangshan People"). Mr. Liu Yufeng in "The Development of Commodity Agriculture and the Commercialization of Agricultural Products in the Tang Dynasty" and the Commercial of Agricultural Products in the Tang Dynasty.

In the article "Preparation and Cultivation", it points out the commercialization of grain and other agricultural products, as well as grain crops and agricultural and sideline products to varying degrees from production to sales, and describes the traffic and sales market of grain, wine, various condiments, tea, sugar cane, mulberry, hemp, cotton, silk cloth, vegetables, fruits, flowers, medicinal materials, livestock (meat and fish), wood and other commodities nationwide. [5] From this we can see that most of the various agricultural products and handicraft products around the city pass through the market, exchange them and then come to the hands of urban residents.

The market system in the Tang Dynasty consists of two parts, one is the general commodity market, that is, the place for ordinary commodity exchange, and there is also a production factor market, including the labor market, real estate market, and cultural and entertainment market. Although the development of the production factor market in the Tang Dynasty was not perfect, it has indeed taken shape. For example, the urban consumption service market we usually talk about, "At any time, in addition to consumer goods in the form of goods, there are also consumer goods in the form of services, namely consumer services" [6] (p160). The completion of such consumer services mentioned by Marx can only rely on the market to achieve. In the Tang Dynasty, the development of the food and entertainment industries in cities, as well as the slave market and wage labor markets spread throughout the cities provided conditions for citizens to consume services. We have studied the urban economy of Jiangnan in the Tang Dynasty and found that an important feature of Jiangnan in the Tang Dynasty was the booming service industry in the city. [7] (p365) As mentioned in the volume of "Jinhuazi Miscellaneous Edition"

In the middle, there were people on the Qinhuai River in Jinling who carried small boats to take on Tao River as their business. It can be said that they are today's river cleaners. An important source of such people serving the city was hired from the labor market. Zhang Mouzhiman, the magistrate of Fuliang County, came to the capital and met a yellow-shirted official in Huayin. This person said to Zhang County Magistrate: "My surname is Zhong, and I am Xuancheng County's foot strength" [8] (Volume 350 quotes the "Fuliang Zhang Ling" article in "The Record of Usculpture".) In Yanling County, Chen Sheng could "ask others to bear medicine" and go to the tutor's workshop.

Looking for someone to carry the burden for yourself. [8] (Volume 74 quotes "Chen Sheng" in "Yi Shi") There are many hotels in the city, and various hotels, hotels, guest houses, and pavilions provide food and accommodation services for businessmen and travelers. The rental and sale of houses in the city is very common. Cao Lang, the magistrate of Huating County, is about to be fully qualified. Not only did he come to Suzhou to buy a big house, but he also bought a small green yi named Huahong, and bought a large number of daily necessities. He planned to live in Suzhou for a long time. [8] (Volume 366 "Cao Lang")

The urban citizens of the Tang Dynasty, especially in some large cities, had a close relationship with the market. Whether it was the general commodity market or the production factor market, most of people's consumption was carried out by the market and completed by the market.

2.

Consumer behavior of consumer groups

If the permanent residents in cities in the Tang Dynasty were divided into three categories, they could be roughly divided into three categories: palace personnel, officials and other public officials and general citizens. Among the general citizens, only handicraftsmen belong to the productive population. The products they produce are either collected by the state or put into the market for sale. Their own basic living consumption has to be completed through market exchange. Most of the other citizens, including scholars, merchants, actors, prostitutes, monks and nuns, are non-productive populations, and their consumption behavior can only be based on

Rely on market exchange.

The connection between the consumption of the palace and the officials and the market underwent a gradually and closely changing process. In the early Tang Dynasty, the consumer goods of the palace mainly came from the supply of various departments or the contributions of various parties. In theory, there was no need to have any connection with the market, but this situation was gradually broken by the emergence of the "Preface City". Professor Ning Xin believed in the article "Inner Court and the Market: Re-examination of the "Preface City" of the Tang Dynasty", "The development of the commodity economy and the prosperity of urban economy and culture made the inner court's market

The demand is extremely urgent, and the connection with the market is more extensive. The increase in the number of people in the inner court has increased the demand for the market. In line with this general trend, the proportion of market procurement in the government supply system has gradually increased."[9] In "Guangyi Ji" written by Dai Fu, a Tang Dynasty man, said: "Xue Jin was the Chang'an Wei in Kaiyuan, and was the main knowledge of the 'gongshi', and was in the east and west markets every day."[8] (Volume 331 "Xue Jin" Article) During the Kaiyuan period of Dui Ming Dynasty, the daily dietary products of the inner court were prime ministers.

When many varieties needed to be purchased in the two major markets in the capital. By Daizong, the "gong market" was responsible for the eunuchs, and forced buying and selling caused public grievances. "At that time, eunuchs were the main market to buy in the palace, which was called the palace market, which was slightly worse than the original estimate. At the end of the year, no longer wrote documents, and they were willing to make a fuss in the two markets and wanted to make a fuss. They read the things they sold, but they called the palace market, and they would pay the money. The authenticity was no longer distinguishable. If they dared to ask about the price, they would use a straight hundred money to buy thousands of things, but still ask for it.

The people go to the market and the price of silver. When people return empty-handed, they are called the palace market, but they are actually robbed."[10] (Volume 140 "Biography of Zhang Jianfeng") Let's not talk about the forced predatory nature of the "palace market", "half a piece of red silk and one zhang silk" is a serious unequal exchange. At least the government's "palace market" can show that under the strong impact of the commodity economy, the consumption of the palace depends to a large extent on the market, and of course it also shows the expansion of the consumption expectations of the palace in the Tang Dynasty.

For officials and public officials such as aristocrats, their consumer goods should be divided into two parts, one is the reward from the emperor, and the other is the market. As for the proportion of these two parts, there is a process of one increase and another decline from the early Tang Dynasty to the middle and late Tang Dynasty. From the relevant historical materials of the early Tang Dynasty, it can be seen that the various rewards of the emperor and the country's physical salary were the main consumption methods of nobles and officials, but it is not that there is no market. "Tang Huiyao" records: "In the first year of Zhenguan, the imperial edict: "In the first year of Zhenguan, the fifth rank is above, no one can afford to market." [2] (Volume 86 "City") This imperial edict is based on the traditional idea of ​​suppressing commerce, but the same

It was proved from the indirectly that officials generally entered the market at that time. In other words, the court restricted them from the level of the rank of high-rank officials, and left officials below the fifth rank without any hesitation. "The New Words of the Tang Dynasty" records a story about the attendant Chen Shuda buying fruit for his mother: "Gaozu had a banquet for his attendant, and there were indeed prunes. Shuda was the attendant, but he held it but refused to eat it. Asked why, he replied: "My mother was suffering from dry mouth, and she couldn't get it." Gaozu said: "Do you have your mother left?" So he sobbed and shed tears. Later, he gave him a hundred pieces of silk to be sweet and precious." [11] (Volume 5 "Filial Piety") This can be said to be the daily life of officials and their families

The powerful example of the need for the market to satisfy the living consumption. By the time of Emperor Gaozong, the commodity economy in cities developed rapidly with the comprehensive recovery of the national economy. Rich businessmen and great businessmen emerged, and aristocratic bureaucrats frequently interacted with them. Chang'an merchant Zou Fengchi, "his family is rich, his gold and treasures are invincible, and he often traveled with the nobles" [8] (Volume 495 "Zou Fengchi"). Some officials even began to start businesses, which shows that the impact of the commodity economy on the ideological concepts of aristocratic bureaucrats was very huge. Since the Wu Zhou Dynasty, historical records have frequently seen records of officials conducting daily consumption through the market. Zhang Heng was appointed as a fourth-rank high-ranking official, "and retired from the court.

When the steamed cakes were freshly cooked by the roadside, they were sold first, and they were immediately eaten and played by the censors. [12] (Volume 4). Since the Xuanzong Dynasty, aristocratic bureaucrats have been involved in the commodity market on a large scale. They not only engage in commercial operations in large quantities, but also their personal consumption has become increasingly dependent on the market, especially the increasingly expanding luxury consumption. In his article "On the Characteristics of Luxury Consumption in the Late Tang Dynasty", Mr. Chen Yande pointed out that one of the characteristics of luxury consumption in the late Tang Dynasty was: "The proportion of luxury goods purchased from the market and obtained from the market has increased compared to luxury goods produced and used by oneself." [13] This conclusion is very reasonable.

In addition, among the salaries of officials in the Tang Dynasty, the proportion of salary money in the total salaries can also be said to be an important manifestation of the increasingly close connection between the consumption method of the official class and the market. "The increase in the amount of salary money expenditure of officials in the Tang Dynasty depends on the growth of the monetary component in the tax structure, and the growth of the monetary component in the tax is based on the development of the commodity monetary economy. Therefore, the increase in salary money of officials in the Tang Dynasty reflects the development of the commodity monetary economy in the Tang Dynasty." [14] On the basis of production, distribution and consumption are linked through exchange. The increase in the proportion of money during the distribution process indicates the increase in the use of money during the exchange process, which also shows the increasingly close relationship between official consumption and the market.

2. Urban consumption level in the Tang Dynasty

The consumption level is theoretically the degree to which people's consumption needs are met in quantity and quality. In history, no matter which period, its consumption water has almost differed at different levels. A comprehensive analysis of various consumption conditions in cities in the Tang Dynasty, we can see that the consumption level of citizens has a serious tendency to polarize.

1.

Luxury consumption by officials, nobles and wealthy businessmen

Under the magnificent momentum of the Tang Dynasty, luxury and decay high consumption seemed to have become synonymous with consumption level in the Tang Dynasty. Mr. Chen Yande also proposed that luxury consumption was one of the trends in the development of the consumer economy in the Tang Dynasty. [15] The consumption level was determined by the economic ability of the consumer group. In the Tang Dynasty, the strict hierarchy of feudal society determined the injustice of wealth distribution, and political status became the decisive factor of the income level. Therefore, bureaucrats with higher political status naturally had huge wealth. However, with the development of urban commerce in the Tang Dynasty, many handicraftsmen or market vendors gradually accumulated wealth by doing business, and some even reached the level of wealth that could rival the country, and they also joined the ranks of high consumption. This high consumption group was mainly concentrated in cities, and their consumption records were everywhere in historical records.

(1) Daily consumption of food and clothing. The food consumption of noble and senior officials is extremely extravagant. They have high-quality pursuits of food such as color, novelty and nutrition, and they are willing to spend a lot of money on it. In Tianbao, "the princesses eat together, and the superior official Yuan Siyi was appointed as the chief official, and he served as a food officer. He had thousands of delicacies in the water and land, and a plate was expensive, which was the product of ten middle-aged families" [16] ("Supplementary"). During the Wuzong Dynasty, Prime Minister Li Deyu was extremely extravagant. "Each pill was about 30,000 yuan, and he had mixed treasures, pearls and jade, realgar, cinnabar, and fried juice. When it was three times, he would discard the dregs in the ditch" [17] (Volume 2). Du Cong, the prime minister of the late Tang Dynasty, "the ministers had good fortune and longevity, and they were rarely ethical. The daily five meals were considered common, and the daily expenses were all worth ten thousand yuan" [18] (P1792).

In terms of clothing, they pursue nobility, gorgeousness and novelty, and this also comes at the cost of huge expenses. On the 15th and 16th night of the first lunar month of the second year of the Ruizong Emperor, when he watched the lanterns, "there were thousands of palace maids, dressed in silk, swaying brocade, shining pearls and jade, and applying fragrant powder. A flower crown, a scarf and a cloak were all ten thousand coins, and a prostitute was all three hundred jin. Miaojian Chang'an, more than a thousand women in ten thousand years, clothes, flower hairpins, and charming sons were also called, and sang under the lantern wheel for three days and nights, with great joy.

It has not been found."[12](Volume 3) Princess Anle once "made Shangfang to combine the feathers of hundreds of birds to knit two skirts, and regarded them as one color, and regarded them as one color at the same time, and the shadows were one color at the same time. The shapes of all birds were seen, and one of them was presented to Queen Wei. The princess also used the hair of hundreds of animals as the faces, and Queen Wei collected the feathers of birds, and all had the shapes of birds, and the labor cost was huge.[3](Volume 34 "Five Elements I") fully demonstrated the high consumption of clothing for women at that time.

In terms of travel, Emperor Xuanzong went to Huaqing Palace. "The concubines and sisters competed in carriages, decorated with gold and jade, and spent hundreds of thousands of chunks of chariots. After that, the heavy weight was too heavy, and the cattle could not be led, so they asked each to ride horses. So they bid for famous horses, with gold as the leash*[ge+long] and embroidery as the obstacle of mud." [16] (Volume 2) During the Yuanhe period of Emperor Xianzong, Lin Rubin robbed a tea merchant of millions of wealth, "dressing, food, carriage, and stewards to make it prosperous, and they were planned to be a marquis." Later, they gave birth to a son, "light fur and fat horse, and they could enter and leave" [19] (Volume 1). Horse riding was a symbol of wealth and status in the Tang Dynasty. Merchants were already very common in the Tang Dynasty, and they were often decorated too much, no less than officials.

The daily necessities of the nobles are even more rare. In the time of the heaven, Zhang Yizhi built a seven-treasure tent for his mother Azang, "Gold, silver, pearls and jade, treasures, etc., and has never been heard of it since ancient times. He lays ivory beds, weaving rhinoceros horn mats, marbles of marbles, felts of mosquitoes, dragon beards of Fenjin, and phoenix fountains in the river as mats" [12] (Volume 3). Princess Taiping's jade leaf crown, Lady Guo's luminous pillow, and Yang Guozhong's locked tents are all rare treasures, and cannot be counted as straightforward" [16] (Volume 2). The giant king Yuanbao "has good guests, who are dedicated to luxury, use tools, and usurp the princes and princes... He often carves and short children in front of the tent bed, holds the seven-treasure Boshan furnace, and burns incense to the dawn" [20] (Volume 2).

(2) Residential villa. The Tang people put a lot of effort into building residential villas, which was extremely luxurious, and each generation was more magnificent than the next. As the historian said: "In Tianbao, the noble family of Qixun was already in extravagant, but the system still existed in the wall house. However, the family temple of Duke Wei Li Jing was already the stable of the minister Yang family. After the great chaos in history, the laws and regulations were slackened, and the inner minister Rong Shuai competed for extravagance. The pavilion and the house were poor, and the strength was stopped. At that time, it was called the "wood demon"."[10] (Volume 152 "Biography of Ma Lin") The high consumption of building houses at that time was mainly reflected in the decoration of houses at that time.

In terms of glory, Zetian built a new house from the son of his father and sister, and built a new house. "They were all made of cypresses as beams, agarwood and red powder were made of mud walls, and the fragrance was vigorous when the door was opened. The stone was made of steps and the ground, and those who wore Jimo boots were leaning on the servants when walking." Later, the princess Taiping went to his house to inspect and sighed, "Look at where he walked, we were living and waving and dying." [12] (Volume 3). Even Princess Taiping sighed that she was not as luxurious as she was, which showed that the luxury of the house was first-class at that time. During the Xuanzong period, the giant king Yuanbao, "often used gold and silver as a stack of houses, and red mud on the walls were made of red mud.

, a Lixian Hall was built in the house, with sunken sandalwood as the threshold, tiled tangerine floor, brocade stone as the pillar, and copper wire through money, tidying in the flower path of the back garden, which is valuable for mud and rain not slipping." [20] (Volume 2), which has reached the level of wealth of money with a luxurious residential garden. Another main manifestation of building a luxury house is that the house covers a very large area. Guo Ziyi, a great hero who quenched the Anshi Rebellion, "earned an official salary of 240,000 yuan per year,... His house was in the neighborhood, one-quarter of the house, and the middle was connected to Yong Lane, with three thousand family members, and those who went in and out did not know

His residence was given fertile fields and beautiful utensils, famous gardens and a museum, and precious music, and a pile of treasures, and enviousness, and unparalleled records."[10] (Volume 120 "Biography of Guo Ziyi"). In Mr. Yang Hongnian's "Examination of the Two Capitals of the Sui and Tang Dynasties", Chang'an's yards were divided into five categories according to their size, and the relatives belonged to the third category, "350 steps from north to south, 650 steps from east to west, and 491,600 square meters in area"[21](p250). In this way, Guo Ziyi's mansion covers an area of ​​about 120,000 square meters today, which shows that his majestic momentum and vast wealthy families are.

(3) Marriage and funeral. There were many marriages in the Tang Dynasty similar to today's customs and they had to spend a lot of money. Regarding the consumption of marriages in the Tang Dynasty, we have another article to talk about them. Here are only two examples. Wei Dan's son Wei Zhou was demoted to Yongzhou, and extravagant marriages were prevalent in the local area. "At first, people's marriages were 'poisoned', and guests were called 'poisonous wine', gathered day and night, up to hundreds, and the poor were dozens of people." [3] (Volume 210 "The Biography of Wei Dan's Biography of Wei Zhou"). Yongzhou is still in the border, not to mention that in a big city like the capital, the marriage of noble people is a lot of money. Of course, the most luxurious one is the emperor's marriage to his daughter. Xiantong

In the ninth year, Princess Tongchang surrendered. "The house was in Guanghua, with tin money of five million stags. It was even more precious in the warehouse, so that the house could be fully realized." It was extremely luxurious. For example, "The princess took a seven-treasure chariot with five-color brocade sachets on the four corners. The bags stored in the fragrance of evil, the fragrance of auspicious tinsels, and the fragrance of golden phoenixes. These were all worshippers from other countries. They were still mixed with dragon brain gold chips, crystal agate and dust-proof rhinoceros to shape dragon and phoenix flowers and trees. They were all covered with real pearls and tortoiseshells on it, and golden silk was used as tassels, and light jade was used as floating. Every time they went out, the fragrant streets and alleys were fragrant, and the crystal light shined the sun, and the viewers were dazzling their eyes." History says that "the prosperity of the princesses from the Han and Tang Dynasties came out of the way" [8] (Volume 237 "Princess Tongchang").

Funeral consumption is even more luxurious. Princes and nobles, rich families, "dedicated to the grand funeral tombs as their filial piety, so they made clothes, quilts, coffins, and carved utensils, coffins, and decorations of gold and jade"①. During the reign of Emperor Gaozong, Li Yifu, a treacherous minister who had a knife hidden in his smile, buried his grandfather, "built tombs on the side of Yongkang Mausoleum. Sanyuan ordered Li Xiaojie to privately teach Ding's husband, car ox, and build a tomb for him, day and night. So Gaoling, Liyang... and other seven counties were afraid of filial piety and had to go to the service.... The princes and princesses were down and fought for gifts, and their feathers, guides, creeps, utensils, and clothes were extremely luxurious. They were also able to bury carriages and horses, and their ancestors laid tents, belonging to the Sanyuan Bridge, which belonged to the Sanyuan for seventy miles, and continued. The martial virtues had arrived, and the princes and princesses were prosperous and had not yet existed."[10] (Volume 82 "Biography of Li Yifu")

(4) Entertainment. The nobles were bored and would look for all the content to be entertained. Various entertainment projects came into being in the Tang Dynasty. In order to show that they were rich and powerful, many people would spend a lot of money. During the reign of Emperor Gaozong, the treacherous minister, Xu Jingzong, was extravagant, "he used to build seventy flying buildings, so that prostitutes could ride horses on them, thinking that they were entertaining" [8] (Volume 236 "Xu Jingzong"). In Jinglong, Zhongzong, "the concubine's family was a luxury. The son-in-law Yang Yan was a friend, and Wu Chongxun sprinkled oil on the ground and covered the field" [8] (Volume 236 "Yang Shenjiao"). During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, Guo Yingyi was "very wild and wild, gathered women to ride donkeys to hit the ball,

The erected donkey saddles and other ingredients were all extravagant and decorative, and they spent tens of thousands of dollars a day to make them laugh”[10] (Volume 117 "Biography of Guo Ying□". After the Anshi Rebellion, although the national treasury was empty and economic difficulties, it could not stop the high entertainment consumption of officials. According to the "Biography of Tang Dynasty", "Du Ya was in Huainan, and the play of competing for lotus, dragon boats, brocade cables and sails was spent tens of millions. Yu Di was in Xiangzhou, lit mountain lamps, and put two thousand stones of oil on one occasion. Li Changkui was in Jingnan, hunting and renovating decorations. His wife Dugu also had two thousand women's team, all wearing red and purple brocade jackets. These three palaces were also empty."[22](p884)

At this point, we can't help but be amazed at the high consumption capacity of bureaucrats and nobles in the Tang Dynasty. The wealthy and wealthy people in the Tang Dynasty not only had such financial resources, but also had a huge amount of consumption. There is a record from the Dezong period in historical records, which tells the monthly consumption of a favored eunuch. At that time, Chen Shaoyou bribed the middle-ranking official Dong Xiu, "waiting to go straight and visit him alone. He calmly said: 'How many people in Qilang's family are, how much does it cost every day?' Xiu said: 'I have been close to the post for a long time, and I have a lot of money. It is also the time of the time and the goods are expensive, so I have to spend more than a thousand guan a month.'" [8] (Volume 239 "Chen Shaoyou" Article) Later, Chen Shaoyou "please prepare the cost of Qilang alone" and gave him 50,000 guan a year. In the middle and late Tang Dynasty, with the strengthening of the political power of eunuchs, his economic strength was enough to make them among the high consumption.

2.

Low consumption for ordinary citizens

Although "the top of the pyramid will be much higher than the iron tower in Paris, and most of us are located in a place that is only one yard away from the ground" [23] (p117). After all, the high-consumption group is only a small part of the urban citizens of the Tang Dynasty. The consumption level of handicraftsmen and ordinary small and medium-sized merchants who account for the vast majority of the citizens is definitely not as high as that of such a high level. However, there are not many descriptions of their living conditions in historical books. As Brodell said: "Unfortunately, we know more about the big scenes in the palace than the lives of the people in the city. What we are more interested in is the live fish market that is transported from wooden barrels, or the game market... Here, unusual things conceal daily things.

”[24](p651) And he also rationally inferred that "China's potential poverty is everywhere. Emperors and officials are above this poverty, and they just enjoy and spend money. Their luxury seems to belong to another world"[24](p650). The impression of prosperity given by the Tang Dynasty and the luxury and decay of wealthy families also concealed the truth of life of ordinary citizens. In fact, the low consumption level of poor people is compared to the prosperity of urban commercial economy in the Tang Dynasty, which is another more realistic world. Some experts have pointed out: "Traditional society has always placed the vast number of working people in addition to high consumption. Their consumption level is always suppressed at the lowest water to maintain population survival and population reproduction.

The market consumption capacity was almost deprived of its entire line."[25](p243) In the cities of the Tang Dynasty, the consumer groups at this level of consumption were mainly poor people with low social status and economic capabilities. The most typical example is the old man selling charcoal in Bai Juyi's works, "What can I earn money for selling charcoal? I have food in my body. I am poor on my body and I am worried about the lowly charcoal and wish it was cold"[26](Volume 4 "The New Yuefu Charcoal Selling Man"). His consumption expenditure was mainly about food and clothing, and in the cold winter, he only wore a single piece of clothing, and even the basic needs for keeping warm could not be met. Zhang Shouyi, who was originally a peddler, could not survive before being promoted by Lu Yongzhi of Guangling. "She carried a willow box.

, selling powder and dairy to trade food and clothing, and it flows between the Jianghuai River and Huai River"[8] (Volume 289 "Zhang Shouyi"). He sold cosmetics with a low income, and could only exchange for the most basic food and clothing, and the consumption level was low like a charcoal seller. However, there was a poor woman in Zhenzhou who "had never obtained a complete clothing in her life"[8] (Volume 158 "Poor Women"), and she was so poor that she could not afford to wear clothes. Du Fu's sentence "The wine and meat in the rich are smelly, and there are frozen bones on the road"[4] (Volume 216 Du Fu's "Five Hundred Words of Thoughts from Beijing to Fengxian County") makes us lament the injustice of class society, we can also see that many civilians at the lowest consumption level in the city cannot even meet the most basic consumption needs of food and clothing.

In addition, there is a group of people struggling on the poverty line in the city, who are scholars from poor backgrounds. They are "poor families are not enough to survive, so they should be recruited to find officials" [27] (Volume 15 "Letter to the Ministry of War Li Shilang"), and came to big cities such as Chang'an, but they often have a difficult life before they got official positions. Du Fu once laughed at himself: "The wild guests in Duling are even more sneered, and their hair is as narrow as silk. They buy five liters of rice in Taicang every day, and go to Zheng Lao's same-collar period." [4] (Volume 216 Du Fu's "Song of Drunk") were also unable to seek official positions. During the more than ten years of living in the capital, they were not satisfied with their talents and lived in poverty, and they fell to the point of buying food for cheap Taicang rice. The consumption level of these poor scholars is close to the urban consumption water.

The lower class of flat people. Even after they got the official position, if their official positions were not high, their salary would be extremely low, and their consumption level could only make a living, and it might be difficult to get out of the poverty line. When they joined the army of Miao Fan of Taiyuan Prefecture, they "have no ten golds left, no land or palace to return" [27] (Volume 25 "Epitaph of Miao Jun of Taiyuan Prefecture"). When they had low incomes, they often had to support a large family and relatives and friends who had defected. For example, Miao Fan wanted to raise "two orphan men and women of four families", which limited the improvement of their consumption level. When Han Yu was a doctor of the Imperial College, his daily life even showed that "the warm winter was cold, the rich year was the rich wife cried hungry", and even "the morning cooking was not given". [10] (Volume 160 "Biography of Han Yu")

This huge disparity in consumption levels caused by inequality in wealth distribution is actually not a special product of traditional agricultural society. Even in developed modern industrial society, we can see it clearly. The key to the problem is to "test the development of a society, not care about inequality, but the size of the deflection angle between this inequality and the absolute average curve" [25](p244). The industry and businessmen in cities in Tang Dynasty were an important part of urban residents. In terms of economic income, they were at the bottom of the broad pyramid. From them, what we see is the general consumption level in cities in Tang Dynasty, and this lower level just limited the development of commerce in Tang Dynasty to a higher level.

3.

Small and medium-sized industrialists and businessmen have sufficient food and clothing to consume

There are actually not many positive records of the consumption of industrial and commercial workers in historical records, so we can only make a general judgment from their income level. Industry and commerce in the Tang Dynasty had great developments compared with previous generations. In terms of handicrafts, the official handicrafts in the Tang Dynasty had fewer connections with the market and commodity economy, while private handicrafts had developed significantly, and the connection with the market after the middle Tang Dynasty was strengthened. Some handicraftsmen also engaged in business, so the income of handicraftsmen increased significantly compared with previous generations. With the development of urban commodity economy, the merchant class has been promoted to grow unprecedentedly, the social status has improved, and the economic strength has also been greatly enhanced. The increase in the income of industrial and commercial workers directly determines the improvement of consumption level. So what level has the consumption level of ordinary industrial and commercial workers reached?

History records that there is a wife of a Jiaren in Chang'an. "Ten years after his husband died, there are still old businesses in the flag pavilion. If you stay in the house in the day and night, you will be able to pay for it." [8] (Volume 196 "Jian Wife" Article). His family "get rich and frugal", buys rice and meat every day, and has the financial resources to hire slaves. This is a rare record of the daily income and consumption of a merchant family. It is obvious that its consumption level has reached the level of food and clothing without worries. This is just an ordinary flag pavilion restaurant, and its consumption level is very broad.

The average level of large industrial and commercial workers. When Wang Shi, Xiangzhou visited the guest house, "I suddenly saw a guest eating a meal and had a rich meal. Shi asked his business, and the guest said: It was difficult to sell mixed powder and fragrant medicine. Shi suspected that he was a thief and asked him how much money he had, but he had too much food and clothing. This person said: There is only five thousand foundations, which are profitable every day, but he keeps his foundation and does not expect the rest, so he always has enough food and clothing." [8] (Volume 165 "Wang Sou" Article) He also does a small business, and the profit will not be too high, but it is enough to ensure his consumption level of adequate food and clothing.

The number of people employed in major cities in the Tang Dynasty may have been higher than those of the previous generations, and their economic strength has been enhanced. Therefore, ordinary industrial and commercial workers can achieve a consumption level of adequate food and clothing, indicating that with the development of industry and commerce and the improvement of living standards of ordinary industrial and commercial workers, the average level of life and consumption in the entire Tang Dynasty was higher than that of previous dynasties. Of course, it should be noted that the consumption level also depends on the consumer's own consumption preferences, value orientations, and social conditions. In the Tang Dynasty, where luxury became popular, in a prosperous and hustle and bustle city, and traveled between princes and nobles, some people in high positions did not envy the luxury of the people at the time, did not enjoy the beauty of luxury, and were willing to live in a humble room and covered their clothes with vegetables. Li Huai, the prime minister during the reign of Emperor Gaozong, was

"Although he has been in a position for a long time, he has been simple and simple, and has nothing to change into the garden and house" [10] (Volume 90 "Biography of Li Huaiyuan"). After the Anshi Rebellion, Liu Yan was in charge of the world's finances, "living and getting a comfortable place, not admiring the Chinese house. He is full, not engaging in both food and food, not engaging in both quality. He is stable and does not choose the color of the horse" [28] (Volume 1). A sentence by Liu Yuxi, a Tang Dynasty man, said very appropriately: "This is a shabby room, but my virtue is full." [29] ("Supplementary Literature") These high-ranking officials are definitely not without the economic ability of high consumption, but as some scholars say, "The long-term accumulation of Chinese traditional culture has formed a measure of a person's value and the results of the scholars suppressing their pursuit of material enjoyment. At the same time, the provisions of the law also restricted the pursuit of the Tang Dynasty" [30].

3. Urban consumption structure in the Tang Dynasty

The consumption structure refers to the proportion of various consumption expenditures to total consumption expenditures. The various consumption contents of people in the Tang Dynasty in social and economic life, religious and cultural life, and folk customs account for the total consumption expenditure of citizens in the Tang Dynasty were affected by their consumption level, social class to which they belong, and the level of urban commodity economic development. In general, there were two major characteristics in the urban consumption structure of the Tang Dynasty.

1.

Different consumption levels have different consumption structures

For consumer groups with high consumption levels, while pursuing high standards of food, clothing, housing and transportation, the proportion of spiritual life consumption projects in total consumption expenditure has increased significantly. For example, in the middle and late Tang Dynasty, the consumption of flowers was prevalent in some big cities, especially the pursuit and appreciation of peonies. [31] Bai Juyi's poem "Buy Flowers" vividly depicts the fanaticism of wealthy families in the capital to buy flowers: a cluster of brightly colored flowers is equivalent to the tax amount paid by ten middle-aged families, but

The rich people still talked about it and were "obsessed and unconscious". For example, the Tang people had a special liking for calligraphy and painting. The purchase and collection of calligraphy and painting required huge financial resources, so it was definitely an elegant and luxurious spiritual consumption. From the mid-Tang Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty, according to the "Records of Famous Paintings of All Ages", there were nearly 30 collectors including Dou Zan, Xi Yi, Pan Lushen, among which, except for a monk and a Taoist monk, were all important members of the court. The financial resources of thousands of acres of the fields and the spiritual needs of aesthetic pleasure prompted them to purchase.

Calligraphy and painting have thus become "a house for gathering treasures". Their material life consumption is also to meet certain spiritual needs. In terms of materiality, the Tang people paid special attention to the construction of residential gardens. The popular concept at that time was: "Whenever you enter the official position as a magistrate, you will be the first house" [10] (Volume 8 "Biography of Li Yiyan". If building a luxury house is a symbol of wealth and status, building a garden museum has a bit more quiet and elegant interest. At that time, "the powerful and powerful people are profitable."

Use power, extravagant money, and do all the best things in civil and industrial work (buying villas). They attach importance to the poetry and painting of villas, build stones and mountains, digging pools to draw water, pavilions and towers and flowers, plants and trees to complement each other. They pay more attention to the artistic conception of villas, forming a limited space beyond the scenery, and the momentum of heaven and earth in the pot is no less than the spirit of royal gardens." [32] Pingquan Villa, the prime minister of Wuzong Li Deyu, "going to Luocheng thirty miles, the flowers and wooden pavilions, like building an immortal palace. There is a virtual threshold, and the spring water is drawn in front, and lingering

It is like Baxia, Dongting, Twelve Peaks, Nine Sects to the shape of the scenery of the Haimen River and Mountains. There are flat stones in the bamboo paths. When you rub it with your hands, you can see the shapes of clouds, dragons, phoenixes, and grass and trees with your hands."[33] (Volume 2), and it is built more beautifully, like a fairyland on earth. Villas of this kind of garden nature owned by great officials or nobles or literati and poets are everywhere in the suburbs of big cities or in the beautiful mountains and rivers. This can be said to be an extraordinary and luxurious spiritual consumption.

In contrast, the proportion of material consumption items such as clothing, food, and daily necessities in total consumption expenditure has decreased. For them, the consumption demand for food has long exceeded the filling effect of food itself. What they pursue is the matching of the grade of clothing and their own status and the spiritual satisfaction brought by this. As Veblen talked about the difference between silver spoons and aluminum spoons, he concluded for the leisure class: "We get a high level of satisfaction from using and appreciating a high-priced and beautiful product. In general, most of the satisfaction of high-pricedness in the name of aesthetics." [34](p93-94) It is more appropriate to use this passage to explain the pursuit of high consumption by officials, nobles and wealthy businessmen in the Tang Dynasty.

For ordinary consumer groups with low consumption levels, consumption in material life in the consumption structure is undoubtedly the first priority. For low consumption levels like charcoal sellers, consumption in the sense of survival such as food and clothing accounts for almost all, and spiritual consumption projects such as entertainment are basically out of reach for them. However, for those consumer groups that can achieve adequate food and clothing, as purchasing power increases, their consumption demand level will also increase. Therefore, they began to emulate the consumption atmosphere of the upper class, improve the quality of material consumption, and increase the proportion of spiritual consumption, which led to the upgrading of the consumption structure to a higher level. This is a necessity brought by the characteristics of "upward and downward effects" in the consumption atmosphere.

However, the result. For example, some scholars have studied the changes in the main components of the painting consumer group in the Tang Dynasty, and believed that from the early Tang Dynasty to the prosperous Tang Dynasty (between the Kaiyuan period of Emperor Xuanzong and the middle-aged period of Emperor Dezong of Jian), the painting consumer group expanded from the royal family to the literati and doctor class. [35] The sub-class of literati stepped into the elegant spiritual consumption of calligraphy and painting, while satisfying spiritual pleasure, and improved their own consumption structure. Even without such financial resources and interests, the spiritual demand would rise after basic food and clothing were basically met. The citizens of the Tang Dynasty widely participated in leisure and entertainment activities such as music, dance, hunting, outings, hitting balls, and fighting cocks, and some even lost their money. The great development of the entertainment industry in the city shows the active spiritual consumption of citizens.

2.

The consumption structures of different social classes have their own characteristics

Different occupations directly lead to differentiation of income. There are more or less, and social status will be different. Different classes have different pursuits for ideal life, and they will be very different in consumption. Here we will give some special social classes to analyze their characteristics in consumption structure.

(1) Bureaucrats and nobles. In the officialdom, it is inevitable that the officialdom is social consumption. During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, Yang Guozhong's children "did ice every day, they took the workers into the shape of a phoenix beast, or decorated it with gold rings and ribbons, placed it on a carving plate, and sent it to princes and ministers, but Zhang Jiuling did not receive this benefit" [20] (Volume 2). Yang Guozhong's power was in power, and his children still had to spend financial resources to "get the court with evil spirits." In the middle and late period, the government became increasingly corrupt, and officials at all levels used to run for officials, and the official consumption of the upper and lower levels became more prosperous. During the reign of Emperor Xianzong, Wang E "used tens of millions of dollars to bribe the power and be the prime minister" [10] (Volume 148 "Biography of Li Fan"). During the reign of Emperor Muzong, Wang Bo also "used a lot of money to bribe human rights and seek to be the prime minister in bribery. He asked for the blessing of human rights in bribery.

Being the Prime Minister"[8] (Volume 261 "Wang Bo"). For these officials, the political future is the most important, so the consumption of officialdom accounts for a large proportion of their consumption structure. Another special consumption of bureaucrats and nobles is to purchase land to build manors. In feudal agricultural society, land was the most fundamental means of production and the most stable wealth. The purchase of land was not only a consumption but also an investment. The prime minister of Yizong, Wei Zhou, was good at governing life, and there were other industries in the east of Jiangling Prefecture, with good land being produced in good fields and the most fertile, while the accumulated rice was like a sluggish ear." At the beginning of Xiantong, "there were still seven thousand piles of grains in Jiangling Village" and was called "Zu Gu Weng" by Yizong [36] (Volume 1). The amount of land purchased was very amazing.

(2) Sons of literati. In the Tang Dynasty, the imperial examinations were implemented to select scholars. Before the literati achieved fame, in addition to the necessary consumption such as food and clothing, the expenses of studying and taking the imperial examinations accounted for a large proportion. However, if it were not for cheating and bribery, the expenses would not be too high. However, whether the literati in the Tang Dynasty were ranked first or not, they all had a similar hobby, and they all liked to be nostalgic in the fireworks and willow alleys, chanting poems and lyrics with prostitutes, singing and dancing. "Tang Li Yan"

There are many examples of the scholars who died in the dream of being drunk. For example, Pei Siqian said that when the top scholar passed the title, he made dozens of red papers and went to Pingkangli, and stayed in the Lizu." "Zheng Hejing's ancestors passed the title" and "stayed in Pingkangli". [37] (Volume 3 "Ci'en Temple title, "The Miscellaneous Records") Some people gathered to join in the banquet. When visiting prostitutes, they were like a bottomless pit, which often made the literati and children devote all their money and became a major expenditure item for them.
To be continued...